Attempts to control and limit how people’s genders and sexuality have been part of the U.S. since colonization. During this time, Europeans used myths and theories to justify imposition of British culture that upheld heterosexuality and two genders (male and female) corresponding with masculinity and femininity, respectively, saying that other gender norms were wrong, “backward,” and evidence of savagery or sin. Research indicates that there were well over 100 instances of diverse gender expression in indigenous tribes at the time of early European contact, which were effectively erased through colonization (National Park Service).

Today, we continue to see rampant gender and LGBTQ+ discrimination, fueled by a continued belief that there should be two genders and all sexual relationships should be heterosexual. Discrimination and attempts to control gender and sexuality occur in many forms, including policies and structures (e.g. dress codes, gender-specific bathrooms), school curriculum and extracurricular activities (e.g. gender-specific sports), gendered expectations for play (e.g. dolls for girls and cars for boys), verbal cues and bullying (e.g. telling children to act ladylike or be strong rather than show emotion), and harmful corrective counseling to “change” how a person expresses their gender or sexuality, to name a few.

Gender discrimination can affect health, achievement, and life outcomes, including struggles with basic health and wellness, educational achievement and economic security, and intimate relationships. This is especially the case for low-income and people of color, who have added challenges associated with poverty and racism and especially strict expectations for gender and behavior. For example, Black men experience pressure to display hyper-masculine behavior through athleticism, the objectification of women, toughness, and fixation with wealth (Roberts-Douglass & Curtis-Boles, 2013). Expectations of black masculinity are particularly important from individuals of low socioeconomic standing.

In Milwaukee, we need to unlearn the colonized thinking that contributes to discrimination, individually and systemically, and to ensure Milwaukee is a safe space for people across genders and sexualities to prosper.

Sources:

• Bauermeister, J. A., Connochie, D., Jadwin-Cakmak, L. & Meanley, S. (2017). Gender policing during childhood and the psychological well-being of young adult sexual minority men in the United States. American Journal of Men’s Health. 11(3), 693–701.
• Collier, K. L., Van Beusekom, G., Bos, H. M. W., & Sandfort, T. G. (2013). Sexual orientation and gender identity/expression related peer victimization in adolescence: A systematic review of associated psychosocial and health outcomes. Journal of Sex Research, 50, 299-317.
• D’Augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., & Starks, M. T. (2006). Childhood gender atypicality, victimization, and PTSD among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 1462–1482.
• O’Shaughnessy, M., Russell, S., Heck, K., Calhoun, C., & Laub, C. (2004). Safe place to learn: Consequences of harassment based on actual or perceived sexual orientation and gender non-conformity and steps for making schools safer. San Francisco, CA: California Safe Schools Coalition.
• Rieger, G., & Savin-Williams, R. (2012). Gender nonconformity, sexual orientation, and psychological well-being. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41, 611-621.
• Roberts-Douglass, K., & Curtis-Boles, H. (2013). Exploring positive masculinity development in African American men: A retrospective study. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(1), 7-15. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0029662